Human System Notes

SENSE ORGANS

Eye

Transduction--------------------> Conversion of image into signal

Vitreous chamber (VC) --------------------> Vitreous jelly (fixed quantity)

Aqueous chamber(AC) --------------------> Aqueous liquid (daily secreted) --------------------> Drain excess of aqueous liquid through canal of Schlem.

Inter ocular pressure increase because of blockage of canal of Schlem (IOP) -------------------->Glucoma

6 muscles in eye controlled by 3 cranial nerves in human. (Occulomotor-3^rd, Trochlear-4^th and Abducens-6^th )

{SO controlled by 4^th and LR by 6^th. Other muscles controlled by nerve III} @SO4 LR6

• O---------------->Oblique
• S---------------->Superior
• M---------------->Medial
• I---------------->Inferior

Pupil

Near object--------------------> Less focal length-------------------->Contraction of ciliary muscle-------------------->Thick lens

Retina

Rod cell-------------------->Rhodopsin-------------------->Dimlight vision

Cone cell-------------------->Iodopsin-------------------->Colour detect-------------------->Bright

Glands of eye

Tear/Lacrymal gland

Lysozymes-------------------->Kill infectants

1% solution of NaCl

Meibomian gland

Oily chemical lubricate cornea blinking of eye

Defects of eye

Myopia (Short sightness)

Hypermetropia(Long sightness)

Presbiopia-------------------->Old age (Loss of accommodation of eye) -------------------->Remedy(Bifocal lens)

Astigmatism--------------------> Curvature problem-------------------->Cylindrical lens for remedy

Cataract--------------------> Opaque area in lens

Disease

Xerophthalmia-------------------->dry eye (vit A deficiency)

Night blindness--------------------> vit A deficiency

Trachoma--------------------> Bacterial infection (Chlamydia trachomatic)

EAR

Scala vestibule and tympani connected by helicotrema and contain perilymph. Scala media contain endolymph.

Receptors

• Organ of corti-------------------------------> Sound
• Macula------------------------------->in sacculus and utriculus
• Cristae------------------------------->in ampulla

Macula and cristae hep in balancing movement of head.

Semicircular canals are filled with endolymph and enlargement at one of it’s end is ampulla.

Ear ossicles

Malleus----------------------->Hammer shaped------------------------>Articular bone

Incus------------------------>Anvil shaped------------------------>Hyomandibular bone

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Mouth

Vibrissae/whiskers------------->upper lip of rabbit

philtrum-------------> upper lip of man

Vestibule-------------> space between lip and teeth/ cheek and gum

Buccal cavity and pharynx separated by isthmus.

Jacobson organ------------->Present on upper jaw of rabbit (take smell)

Palate

• Soft palate------------->Have uvula(Uvula or venum)
• Hard palate------------->Have rugae

Teeth of mammal------------->thecodont, diphyodont, heterodont

Teeth of frog------------->acrodont, polyphyodont, homodont

Tusk of elephant is modified upper incisor and tusk of walrus is modified canine.

Enamel is hardest substance in body.

Ectodermal origin and secreted by amyloblast cell.

Dentine is mesodermal in origin and secreted by odontoblast cell.

• Man------------->2 1 2 3/ 2 1 2 3 (adult 20+)
• Man-------------> 2 1 0 2/ 2 1 0 2 (Child)
• Rabbit------------->2 0 3 3 / 1 0 2 3

Tongue

 endodermal origin

Divided into oral(2/3) and pharyngeal (1/3) by sulcus terminalis.

Nuhn’s gland/ Ebner’s gland / Weber glans or mucus secreting gland on upper surface of tongue.

• Filliform------------->small and many (No taste buds)
• Fungiform------------->Mushroom shaped, medium, less
• Foliate-------------> in rabbit (man absent)
• Circumvallate------------->largest, least, posterior

Sweet------------->tip

Salt------------->middle

Sour------------->side

Bitter------------->posterior

3 pairs of salivary gland in man, 4 pairs in rabbit.

Parotid------------->stenson’s duct(Largest in size)

Sub-maxillary/sub-mandibular------------->wharton’s duct(maximum secretion)

Sub-lingual------------->duct of ruvinus

Infra orbital salivary gland

Epiglottis absent in frog.

Oesophagus

Peristalsis, only mucous gland, voluntary and involuntary also mixed

Stomach

Peritoneal covering is ometum. Folds are rugae.

Fundus absent in frog.

• Oxyntic/parietal cell------------->HCl
• Zymogen/peptic/chief cell------------->pepsinogen, pro-renin, lipase
• Mucous/goblet cell------------->Mucus
• Argentaffin cell------------->Somatostatin(deactivate gastric gland)
• G-cell------------->Gastrin(activate gastric gland)

Intestine

Duodenum------------->Brunner’s gland(only in duodenum)

Common bile duct open anteriorly and pancreatic duct in distal part.

In human hepato-pancreatic duct open in middle of duodenum.

Peyer’s patches------------->phagocytic cell of intestine

Crypts of Liberkuhn has parieth cell secreting lysozyme which kill germ/bacteria.

Succus entericus------------->Secretion of Crypts of Lieberkuhn

Sacculus rotundus is terminal bulb like part of ileum in rat and rabbit(not in man).

Colon

Pouch haustra

E. coli present I colon (vit B2, B12, K2 synthesis)

Rectum is retroperitoneal (like oesophagus tunica adventia is outermost layer.)

Muscularis layer consists of inner circular and outer longitudinal layer except in stomach.

Liver lobes

• 3 frog @(4 letters -1)
• 4 human @(5 letter -1)
• 5 rabbit @(6 letter -1)

Glisson’s capsule -------------> characteristic feature of mammal

Billirubin------------->yellow

Billiverdin------------->green

Pancreas

Wirssung’s duct is main and sentorni is accessory pancreatic duct.

Hepatopancreatic duct has spincter of oddi and ampulla of vater.

α-cell------------->glucagon (increase sugar level)

β-cell------------->insulin

δ -cell------------->somatostatin(inhibit gastrin and secretin)

pp-cell------------->polypeptide(inhibit pancreatic juice)

CIRCULATORY

Human heart is myogenic, frog’s heat is neurogenic. The wall of heart consist of pericardium, myocardium and endocardium (outside to inside).

Area of chest overlying the heart is called pericardium.

Coronary sulcus divides heart into right auricle larger than left auricle.

In right auricle 2 venecava in man and 3 venecava in rabbit open.

During embroynic stages in place of inter-atrial or inter-auricular septum, septum primum and septum secondum are present having a gap called foramen ovalis.

A flap called Eustachian flap is present from the opening of inferior venecava up to foramen ovalies which prevent the entry of blood in the fetal heart to lungs.

During birth there is closure of foramen ovalis but thre remains depression on both sides, depression on right atrium is fossa ovalis and on left is fossa lunata.

Right auricle-ventricle- tricuspid valve

Left auricle-ventricle- bicuspid valve

Semilunar valve controls backflow of blood from aorta and pulmonary artery

Wall of ventricles have muscular bundles called columnae cornea or papillary muscle. Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are attached to papillary muscle through cordae tendinae.(absent in frog, prevent backflow of blood from valve)

Moderator band present in right ventricle.

Ear like appendages attached to atria is auricle.

At places of crossing the pulmonary aorta and caroticosystemic aorta are connected by muscular band known as ligamentum arterosum which during embryonic stages was represented as ductus arteriosum or duct of botalli.

Sinus venosus (dorsal side of frog) and conus arteriosus (obliquely upon ventral surface of right atrium in frog) are accessory chambers in heart of lower vertebrates (fishes and amphibians)

In rabbit sinus venosus is formed in embryo but later becomes of right atrium.

Cardiac centre is medulla oblongata

Impulse originated in SA node--------------->Wall of auricle-------------------> auricle contracts --------->AV nodes- sends impulses --------->Bundle of his- Right & Left bundle branch --------------->Purkinje fibers --------------->Wall of ventricles-------------> ventricle contracts

Cardiac cycle in human = 0.8 sec

In frog = 0.94 sec

Heart sound: 1^st lubb, 2^nd dub

Athletes have low heart rate ( Bradycardia)

Pulmonary vein, Inernal jugular vein, Sinuses of brain and Superior venecava are the veins without valve.

Renal portal system present in frog and human hepatic portal system in human

First branch of aorta is coronary artery and first branch of arch of aorta is Brachiocephalic artery.

Umbilical cord has two artery and one vein. Albumin synthesized by liver.

Cistern chili/ receptaculum chili- second heart present below diaphragm and collect lymph from posterior part of body.

Phrenic artery supply blood to diaphgram.

Anterior abdominal vein ( formed by union of right  and left pelvic vein) present in frog  is absent in rabbit and mammal.

Diaphragm penetration T₈ – Venecava

                                                T₁₀- Oesophagus

                                                T₁₂- Thoracic Duct Aorta

Frog heart beat – 64 per minute

EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Mammalian kidney is metanephric.

Right kidney lower than left because of liver in human. Opposite in case of rabbit

Archeonephric-  Schistomata eg. Hag fish

Pronephric- Fish and tadpole stage

Mesonephric- Adult amphibia an lung fish

Metanephric- Reptiles, Aves and Birds

Kidney receive 25% of cardiac output per minute

Glomerulus

Bowman’s capsule formed by simple squamous epithelial cells. Boot-shaped podocyte cells present in visceral layer

PCT- - simple cudoidal epithelium & brush border cells

• Maximum absorption

Loop of Henle

• Decending limb- squamous epithelium
• Water absorption
• Ascending limb- cuboidial epithelium
• Ions absorption no water entry

DCT

• Reabsorption of water under influence of ADH

Deficiency of ADH causes excess urination called dieresis (insipidus diabetes)

All excretory organ originated from mesoderm except urinary bladder originated from endoderm.
Urinary baldder  lined with trantitional epithelium.

Aminotelic- Unio, Limax, Star fish

Ammonotelic- Bony Fish, tadpole

Uricotelic- Birds, inscets, reptiles

Ureotelic- Mammals, frog, cartilaginous fish

Due to: Urine yellow(urocrome), faeces brown (stercobilin)

Rabbit coprophagus

Hormones secreted by kidney-

• Renin
• Erythropoietin
• Vit. D

Urethrisis common in female

Net filtration pressure= GHP-BOP-CHP

                              = 75-20-20

                              25 mm of hg

Inlammation of urinary bladder- Cystitis

PCT absorb- AG VET (Amino acid, Glucose, Vitamin) Water, Na+, k+, Ca+  absorption

DCT absorb- ADH (water,) Aldesterone(Na+), Active absorption of Na+ & Secretion of K+

PCT secrete- Cretaine, Hydrogen, Hippuric acid, ammonia

DCT secrete- Bicarbonate, Potassium, Hydrogen, Ammonia

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male reproductive system

Abdomen, testes connected by inguinal canal

• Human ---------------> Scrotal Testes
• Elephant, Whale ---------------> Abdominal testes
• Rabbit ---------------> Migratory testes

Interstitial cells of leydig secete testosterone under influence of leutenizing hormone (LH)

Condition in which testes do not descend into the scrotum is called crypto orchidism

Spermatogenesis

Germinal epithelial cell

One primary spermatocyte = Four Sperm

One secondary sperm atocyte =Two Sperms

Spermatogonia (2n) ---------------> Primary spermatocytes  (2n) ---------------> Secondary spermatocyte (n) ---------------> Spermatids (n) ---------------> Spermatozoa (n)

Spermatids undergo spermeogenesis to form spermatozoa

Sperms remain alive and retain their ability to fertilize ovum from 24 to 48hrs after being released in female tract

Capacitation ---------------> Sperm develop capacity to fertilize ovum that develops in fallopian tube

Acrosome formed from golgicomplex contains digestive enzymes spermlysine (Hyaluronidase)

Middle piece (Mitochondria) contain mitochondria surrounding axonema called nabenkern sheath and cytoplasm around mitochondria is manchette

Scortum is made up of dartos muscle

Seminiferous tubules ---------------> Rete Testes (Straight Tubules) ---------------> Ductus epididymis (Wolffian Duct) --------------->Ductus deferens (Vas deferens) ---------------> Ejaculatory duct

Accessory sex glands

Seminal vesicles (Alkaline including fructose )

Prostrate gland  (Acidic )

Cowper’s gland (Bullbourethral gland ) (Alkaline seceration neutralize acid from urine)

Surgical removal of prepuce in muslims and jews is circumcision.

Left testes is lower than right.

Perineal or rectal glands are absent in man.

Female reproductive organ

Ovule

1. During birth---------------------> stop at diplotene stage
2. Ovulation---------------------> stop at meiosis II (metaphase- II)

Estrogen secreted by granulosa cells of griffin follicle.

Progestrone secreted by corpus luteum.

Ovum dies after 24 hours if not fertilized, resulting menstruation and corpus luteum degenerate into corpus ablicans.

Ovum if fertilized gets implanted at endometrium at the blastocyst stage and placenta secrete Human Chorionic Gonadotropin(HCG) which maintain corpus luteum after pregnancy.

Menstrual phase occur in primates and oestrous cycle occur in non-primates.

• 1 to 4--------------------->Menstrual/bleeding phase
• 5 to 14 --------------------->Follicular , proliferative phase, estrogen
• 15 to 28 ---------------------> Luteal, secretory, progestron, constant(about 14 days)

• Infundibulum
• Ampulla---------------------->site of fertilization
• Isthmus

Isthmus separate body and cervix.

Uterus histology

• Perimatrium
• Myomatrium
• Endomatrium

Endomatrium consists of stratum basilis and stratum functionalis.

Stratum functionalis sloughs off during menstruation.

Upper uterus lined by columnar epithellum and lower part of uterus lined by squamous epithelium.

The common area (transition zone) is common site of cervical cancer.

Uterine prolapse is common among multiple births and aged womwn.

Pap’s smear test is screening test for cervical cancer.

Vagina lined by non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Hymen often torn during first coitus.

Bartholin’s gland secrete alkaline fluid which act as lubricant during sexual intercourse.

Homologous organs

Male	Female
Scrotum	Labia majora
Spongy(penile) urethra	Labia minora
Penis	Clitoris
Cowper’s/ Bulbourethral gland	Bartholin’s/ greater vestibular gland
Prostrate gland	Paraurethral (Skene’s gland)

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain

Cranial meninges (Out to in)

• Duramater
• Arachnoid
• Piamater

CSF secreating folding or stretches called choroid plexuses and arachnoid villi helps in CSF absorption.

Communication between ventricles

• Each lateral ventricle------------(Intraventricular foramen/foramen of monro)---------->3^rd ventricle
• 3^rd ventricle-------------(cerebral aqueduct of sylvinus/aqueduct of sylvinus)------------->4^th ventricle

CSF leave ventricle and enter subarachnoid apace through two lateral foramina of Luschka and median foramen of Magendie in fourth ventricle.

Piamater and Arachnoid mater are together called leptomeninges.

• Sub Dural Space-(Arachnoid and Duramater)--------> filled with serous fluid
• Sub Arachnoid Space-(Duramater and Piamater)--------> Filled with CSF

Grey matter- Outer

White matter- Inner

Mid brain--------> 4 lobes----------------> Corpora quadrigemina

Lession in broca’s area results in inability to produce words and speech(in Frontal lobe).

Olfactory lobe distinct in rabbit and attached to anterior end of cerebrum but indistinct in human.

Limbic system- the emotional brain

Amaygdala is considered as “Window of Limbic System”.

Thalamus

Receive and send sensory impulses.

Hypothalamus

Functions @SEAT²

Sex, Sleep

Emotion, Endocrine

Appetite, ANS

Thirst, Temperature

Hypothalamus joins pituitary gland by infundibulum.

Hemiplega--------> Half paralyzed--------->Opposite frontal lobe damaged.

Cerebral hemisphere(cerebral cortex) consistsof gyri(raised), sulsi(depression).

Hemisphere are connected by myelinated nerve called corpus callosum. Presence of corpus callosum is the exclusive character of mammal.

Corpora quadrigemina

-----> 4 swelling mammals

Mid-brain of Frog has two oval optic sacs.

Pons

Apneustic and pneumotaxic center in this area helps to control respiration.

4^th ventricle lies between surface of pons and cerebellum.

Medulla Oblongata

Respiratory center, Cardiac center and vasomotor center.

Cerebellum

Maintain body balance, muscle coordination.

Alcohol suppress cerebellum temporarily.

Peripheral nervous system

Cranial nerves

12 pairs of cranial nerves in mammals, 10 pairs of cranial nerves in fishes and amphibians.

Vagus control heartbeat(parasympathetic)

Largest and thickest------------> Trigeminal(Dentist nerve)

Smallest---------------->Abducens

Thinnest---------------->Trochlear

Longest------------------->Vagus

Spinal Cord and nerves

Grey matter---------------> In

White matter--------------> Out

Butterfly or H-shaped(Spinal Cord).

Posterior horn or dorsal horn consists of sensory neurons whereas anterior horn or ventral horn consists of motor neurons.

Spinal nerves--------------------> 31 pairs(All mixed nerves)

Cervical--------------> 8 pair

Thorax--------------->12 pair

Lumbar---------------> 5 pair

Saccral---------------->5 pair

Coccygeal-------------> 1 pair

Frog has 10 pairs of spinal nerves and in Rana tigrina it is 9 pairs.(37 pairs in rabbit).

Accessory and Hypoglossal(Cranial nerves). Absent in frog.

Spinal cord of frog tapers posteriorly in Urostyle as Filum terminale or cauda equina.

Spinal nerve passes through gland of Swammerdam(Ca+ rich) after emersing from spinal cord.

Autonomic nervous system

Parasympathetic	Sympathetic
(cranio-saccral)	(thoraco-lumbar)
Acetocholine	Noradrenaline
Penis erection	Semen ejaculation

Nerve impulse

Resting potential (Polarized)----------------> -70mV

Active potential (Depolarized)---------------> 45mV

Repolarization----------------------------------> -70mV

Alzheimer’s disease(Dementia)------------->hyposecreation of acetycholine (old age disease)

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Axial

• Skull-22
• Ribs-12 pairs
• Sternum-1
• Vertebrae- 26
• Hyoid bone-6

Skull

• Cranial-8
• Facial-14

Cranial bone

Virus Can Not Make My Pet Zebra Laugh.

V and M------------>Vomer and Mandibular are only unpaired bones in face.

Vertebrae

• C₇H₁₂L₅S₅Co₄  (Baby)
• C₇H₁₂L₅S₁Co₁    (Adult)

Rabbit skull

• Cranial-------->Frontal, Parietal, Occipital segment
• Facial----------> Eye, nose, ear, capsule + Jaw

Foramen magnum surrounded by supraoccipital(1), baso-occipital(1) and exoccipital(2) of occipital segment.

Sella turcica is present in basisphenoid as small depression to lodge pituitary gland.

Ethmoid bone(Cribiform plate) from where olfactory and optic nerve pass is a part of frontal segment.

Optic capsule----------->Separated by interorbital septum so called triploblastic condition.

Auditory capsule--------> Tympanic bulla is flask shaped bone present between basisphenoid and squamosal .

Periotic bone is compound bone.

Olfactory capsule

• Separated by mesethmoid into cavities
• Turbinal also called scroll bone or air conditional. (Conchae in human).

Squamosal and maxilla connected by jugal called zygomatic arch. Zygomatic process is of squamosal bone.

Dentary------------>Lower jaw (Half of lower jaw – Ramous)

Diastema-------------> Gap between incisor and premolar

Rodenia(Rat order) and Lagomorpha(Rabbit order)---------------> Have diastema

Suspensorium (Lower jaw join to upper jaw)

• Craniostyllic-Rabbit
• Autostylic-Frog

Rabbit vertebrae-------------> C₇H_12-13L_6-7S₄Co₁₆

Dental formula------------->  2033/1023 (Rabbit), 2123/2123(Man)

Acoelous--->  Bone, Flat posterior and anterior

Procoelous----> Bone, front concave, rear convex

Amphicoelous----> Both surface concave

Vertebrae-----------> Man(26), Rabbit(45 to 47) , Frog(10)

Atlas--------> No prezygapophysis

Typical vertebrae of frog (2-7)---------> Acoelous  +  9^th vertebrae

8^th vertebrae of frog is Amphicoelous.

Cervical vertebrae-------------> 7 in all mammals except Sea cow (6), Sloth(8)

Atlas--------------->Neural spine reduced, No centrum, both zygapophysis

Axis------------------> Odontoid process(Dens), Post zygapophysis only present

Typical cervical-----------------> Transverse process + Short pointed neural spine, both zygapophysis

Thoracic vertebrae----------------> 1^st has long backwardly directed  neural spine

Lumbar vertebrae-------------------> Anterior lumbar has hypapophysis

Sternum--------------> Breast bone

Xiphoid cartilage

• Manubrium(1)
• Gladiolus(2-6)
• Xiphisternum (7)  bear xiphoid cartilage

Ribs and thoracic vertebrae

• C to C Centrum to Capitulum)
• T to t (tuberculum to transverse process)

Pectorial girdle

• Coracoid process
• Acromian process
• Metacromian process

Pelvic girdle ---------------> Ilium + Ischium = Acetabulum

Only pubis doesnot form acetabularia.

Largest foramen of body(between pubis and ischium)---------------------> Obturator foramen

Cotyloid between ilium and ischium.

Digital formula

	Rabbit	Frog	Human
Fore limb	2,3,3,3,3	0,2,2,3,3	2,3,3,3,3
Hind limb	0,3,3,3,3	2,2,3,4,3	2,3,3,3,3

Humerus

Olecranon fossa, Coronoid fossa, Deltoid ridge

Radio-ulna-------> Epiphysis (Tibia-fibula)

Tibia------------> Cnemial crest

Deltoid ligament------------> Ankle joint

Stiffness of joint in old age is due to decrease in synovial fluid

Sprain-------------> Excessive stretching causing twis of pull of ligament.

Bone to bone joining is done by ligament.

Ball and socket joint---------------->Shoulder and hip

Hinge joint---------------->Elbow and phalangeal joint

Pivot joint---------------->Atlas and skull

Saddle joint---------------->Thumb joint

Gliding joint---------------->Radius and ulna

Angular joint---------------->Wrist joint

Knee joint is largest in body

Floating ribs, 2 in human, 3 in rabbit.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Nasal cavity lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

Paranasal sinuses are- Frontal sinus, Ethmoid sinus, maxillary sinus, sephenoid sinus

Common site of epistaxis is little’s/ Kiesselbach’s area.

Pharynx is common organ for respiration and digestion.

Eustachian tube connects middle ear and nasopharynx.

Laryx has 9 cartilage (6 types, 3 paired, and 3 umpaired)

• Unpaired cartilage (@ETC) Epiglottis, Thyroid, Cricoid
• Paired cartilage Arytenoid, Cuneiform, Corniculate
• Elastic cartilage Epiglottis, Corniculate, Cuneiform
• Hyanline cartilage (@CAT) Cricoid, Arytenoid, Thyroid

Trachea has C shaped hyaline carilages. Trachea bifurcated at T₄ and right bronchi wider, vertical and shorter (@ Right wives)

Alveoli lined by simple squamous epithelium

Type-I alveolar cell à Secrete ACE

Type-II alveolar cell à secrete surfactant

Space between two lungs is media stinum

Lungs

• Human (5) ---------------> Right 3, Left 2
• Rabbit (6) ---------------> Right 4, Left 2
• Frog (1)

Diaphragm supplied by phrenic artery, characteristic feature of mammal and

Flattens during inspiration

Dome shape during expiration

One molecule of Hb can carry four molecules of oxygen

One gram of Hb can bind 1.34 ml of oxygen

• Anoxia ---------------> Absense of o2
• Hypoxia ---------------> Decreased o2 level in blood
• Asphyxia ---------------> Suffocatio as a result of airway obstruction

Oxygen Hb dissociation curve

1. Show relationship between percentage saturation of Hb with oxygen and partial pressure of oxygen
2. It is sigmoid shaped curve

Right shift

1. Decreased affinity of Hb for o2, more release of o2 to tissue
2. Increase H+ ion
3. Decrease pH
4. Increase pCO2 of blood
5. Increase temperature
6. Increase 2,3 DPG (Secerated by RBC in high altitude)

Bohr’s effect

---------------> High o2 concentration causes decreased affinity of Hb for o2

Haldane effect

---------------> High oxygen concentration enhances the unloading of co2

Chloride shift (Hamburger shift)

---------------> Exchange of HCO₃^- and Cl^- across the membrane of RBC

• Tidal Volume ---------------> 500ml
• Inspiratory reserve volume ---------------> 3100 ml
• Expiratory reserved volume ---------------> 1200ml
• Residual volume ---------------> 1200 ml
• Vital capacity ---------------> IRB+ ERV+ TV = 4800ml
• Dead space ---------------> 150 ml
• Total lung capacity ---------------> VC+RV = 6000ml

Tachypnoea ---------------> Increase in respiratory rate

Dyspnoea ---------------> Difficulty in breathing

Orthopnoea ---------------> Difficulty in breathing while laying down

Haemoptysis ---------------> Coughing out of blood

Haemotemasis ---------------> Vomiting out of blood

Hematochaezia ---------------> Passage of fresh blood in stool

Malena ---------------> Passage of (Not fresh) altered blood in stool

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Hormone

• Coined by Starling
• Huxley called them chemical messengers
• First hormone discovered was secretin by Bayliss and Starling.
• First protein to be synthesized in laboratory was insulin by Banting and Best.

Father of endocrinology------------>Addition

1^st endocrine disease------------>Adrenal cortes destruction called Addition’s disease.

Hormones are not stored (except thyroxine).

Released by ductless glands and poured directly into the blood.

Pituitary gland (Hypophyseal gland)

Anterior

• FSH
• LH
• ACTH
• TSH
• Prolactic------------>only +ve feedback mechanism
• Growth hormone

Intermediate

• MSH

Posterior

• ADH
• Oxytocin

Anterior (adenohypophysis) connected to hypothalamus by blood vessel and posterior (neurohypophysis) by nerves.

Pars intermedia or intermediate lobe is rudimentary(vestigial) in human.

If Pituitary gland is surgically removed, blood level of sodium falls and potassium rises.

Neurohypophysis is not true endocrine gland as it stores and release hormone of hypothalamus and doesn’t secrete it’s own hormone.

ADH related to concentration of urine. It’s hyposecretion results in diabetic insipidus.

Oxytocin(milk ejection hormone). Induce contraction of mammary gland and muscle of uterus inducing labour pain for child birth.

Thyroid gland

Largest endocrine gland homologous to endostyle of lower chordates.

Butterfly shaped and bi-lobed. Two lobes connected by ‘isthmus’.

Thyroid gland develops from foramen caecum situated at the floor of tongue. Thyroid composed of spherical sacs called thyroid follicles lined by simple cuboidal epithelium.

Hashimotos diease--------------------> Production of antibody against thyroid antigen causes destruction of thyroid thyroid called suicide of thyroid.

Parafollicular cells secrete Calcitonin which lowers the amount of calcium and phosphate in blood.

Parathyroid gland

Present in all vertebrates except fishes.

a.Oxyphil cells

b.Chief cells

Parathormone/ collip’s hormone-------------------->Regulate Ca and PO₄ metabolism-------------------->Hypersecretion {Osteomalacia/osteoporosis(adult)} and {Ricket(children)}

Hyposecretion-------------------->Tetany

Adrenal gland

a.Cortex(80%)-------------------->3S{Sugar metabolism, Salt retention, Sexual activity}

b.Medulla(20%)-------------------->3F{Fright, Flight, Fight}

Medulla--------------------->Catecholamines(Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, Dopamine)

Mineralocorticoid (conserve Na and eliminate K)

Glucocorticoid ( increase blood glucose level)

Gynecomastia ( Female character in male) and virility (male character in female).

Pineal gland

Located at the posterior portion of roof of third ventricle.

Also called Brain sand (Ca and Mg salt deposited).

Also called epiphysis cerebri/seat of soul/ reminant of third eye).

3 hormones (Melatonin, serotonin and adrenoglomerulotropin)

Melatonin antagonistic to MSH of pituitary.

Serotonin increases blood pressure and adrenoglomerulotropin stimulate adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone.

Thymus Gland

Bilobed lymphoid organ situated in front of heart in upper part of sternum.

Throne of immunity or training school of T-lymphocyte or master gland of immunity.

Hormones-------------------> thymosin and thymopoietin.

Pancreas

2^nd largest Gland, leaf like structure

Endocrine part

Islets of Langerhans

α-cell----------------->Glucagon

 Increase blood sugar level

β-cell-----------------> Insulin

Insulin contain 51 amino acid.

Hyposecretio of insulin results in diabetis mellitus.

δ-cell-----------------> Somatostatin

Inhibit secretion of glucagon and insulin.

F-cell------------------> Pancreatic polypeptide

Inhibit gall-bladder contractions.

Exocrine gland

• Pancreatic acini
• Secrete pancreatic juice

Stomach

Gastrin----------------->Secreted by G-cells of pyloric gland.

Duodenum

Secretin--------------> Stimulate pancreas to secrete fluid

Pancreo-zymin-------------->Stimulate pancreas to secrete enzyme

Chole-cysto-kinin-------------->Simulate gallbladder to rhythemic contraction and these result in rate of bile in duodenum.

Duocrinin-------------->Stimulate secretion of mucus from Brunner’s gland

Small intestine

Enterocrinin-------------->Stimulate intestinal mucosa to secrete the intestinal juice

Enterogastrone-------------->Retards secretion of gastric juice

Villikinin--------------> Stimulate movement of villi for increased absorption.

Kidney

Secrete rennin, erythropoietin and calcitriol.